Published on
1 May 2020
by
Jack Caulfield.
Revised on
7 November 2022.
In Harvard style, the bibliography or reference list provides full references for the sources you used in your writing.
A reference list consists of entries corresponding to your in-text citations.
A bibliography sometimes also lists sources that you consulted for background research, but did not cite in your text.
The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. If in doubt about which to include, check with your instructor or department.
The information you include in a reference varies depending on the type of source, but it usually includes the author, date, and title of the work, followed by details of where it was published. You can automatically generate accurate references using our free reference generator:
Published on
30 April 2020
by
Jack Caulfield.
Revised on
5 May 2022.
An in-text citation should appear wherever you quote or paraphrase a source in your writing, pointing your reader to the full reference.
In Harvard style, citations appear in brackets in the text. An in-text citation consists of the last name of the author, the year of publication, and a page number if relevant.
Up to three authors are included in Harvard in-text citations. If there are four or more authors, the citation is shortened with et al.
Published on
26 March 2020
by
Jack Caulfield.
Revised on
5 May 2022.
A dissertation is a large research project undertaken at the end of a degree. It involves in-depth consideration of a problem or question chosen by the student. It is usually the largest (and final) piece of written work produced during a degree.
The length and structure of a dissertation vary widely depending on the level and field of study. However, there are some key questions that can help you understand the requirements and get started on your dissertation project.
Published on
18 February 2020
by
Jack Caulfield.
Revised on
19 August 2022.
Vancouver is a system of referencing commonly used in biomedicine, among other scientific disciplines. In Vancouver style, you place a reference number in the text wherever a source is cited:
Davies et al. state that the data is ‘unreliable’ (1, p. 15).
This number corresponds to an entry in your reference list – a numbered list of all the sources cited in your text, giving complete information on each:
1. Davies B, Jameson P. Advanced economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2013.
This quick guide presents the most common rules for Vancouver style referencing. Note that some universities and journals have their own guidelines for the formatting of Vancouver references.
Published on
14 February 2020
by
Jack Caulfield.
Revised on
11 November 2022.
A dissertation proposal describes the research you want to do: what it’s about, how you’ll conduct it, and why it’s worthwhile. You will probably have to write a proposal before starting your dissertation as an undergraduate or postgraduate student.
A dissertation proposal should generally include:
An introduction to your topic and aims
A literature review of the current state of knowledge
An outline of your proposed methodology
A discussion of the possible implications of the research
A bibliography of relevant sources
Dissertation proposals vary a lot in terms of length and structure, so make sure to follow any guidelines given to you by your institution, and check with your supervisor when you’re unsure.
Published on
14 February 2020
by
Jack Caulfield.
Revised on
15 September 2023.
Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.
Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list.
In-text citation
Referencing is an essential academic skill (Pears and Shields, 2019).
Reference list entry
Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2019) Cite them right: The essential referencing guide. 11th edn. London: MacMillan.
To automatically generate accurate Harvard references, you can use Scribbr’s free reference generator:
NoteSome universities publish their own guidelines for Harvard referencing – always check if there are specific rules you’re expected to follow. This quick guide presents the most common rules.
Published on
13 February 2020
by
Jack Caulfield.
Revised on
28 March 2024.
MHRA style is a set of guidelines for referencing, commonly used in humanities subjects.
In MHRA, sources are cited in footnotes, marked by superscript numbers in the text. Subsequent citations of the same source are shortened, usually to just the author’s last name and the page number.
The protagonist of Silas Marner, and others of his profession, are described as resembling ‘the remnants of a disinherited race’.1 Though Marner’s appearance is not outwardly strange, we are told that for his neighbours, ‘it had mysterious peculiarities which corresponded with the exceptional nature of his occupation’.2
1. George Eliot, Silas Marner, ed. by Juliette Atkinson (Oxford University Press, 2017), p. 3.
2. Eliot, p. 5.
The bibliography at the end of your text contains all your sources, alphabetically ordered by authors’ last names:
Eliot, George, Silas Marner, ed. by Juliette Atkinson (Oxford University Press, 2017)
Published on
19 January 2016
by
Jack Caulfield.
Revised on
20 October 2023.
A hyphen (-) is a punctuation mark used to connect two or more words (or parts of words) to show that they form one unit of sense – e.g., “fast-paced”, “shake-up”, “four-year-old”, “post-punk”.
Mistakes with hyphens are very common: leaving them out when they’re needed, adding them when they’re unnecessary, or putting them in the wrong place. This is mainly because the same series of words may be hyphenated or not depending on the role it plays in a sentence.
This table covers the main guidelines for using hyphens correctly, which are then explained in more detail below.
Rules of hyphenation
Hyphenate …
Don’t hyphenate …
Compound adjectives that come before the noun: “well-known rules”
Compound adjectives that appear after the noun: “The rules are well known.”
Phrasal verbs used as nouns: “There’s been a break-in!”
Phrasal verbs used as verbs: “The burglar broke in through the skylight.”
Some compound nouns, especially if more than two words (check a dictionary): “brother-in-law”, “jack-of-all-trades”
Most compound nouns: “primary school”, “business owner”, “apple pie”
Prefixes connected with a numeral or capitalised word, or to avoid confusion with another word: “pre-Columbian”, “mid-1960s”, “re-pair” (meaning “pair again”)
Other prefixes generally: “predate”, “midcentury”, “repair”
NoteA hyphen is not the same as an en dash (–) or em dash (—), both of which are used differently.
